Gear change on road to Rio?

UN Security Council Reform of the UN's internal democracy is urged
Richard Black BBC News 15 Mar 12;

One of the biggest questions being asked in the lead-up to the Rio+20 conference this June is also one of the oldest.

In a nutshell: does the way humanity governs itself need a series of tweaks or a complete overhaul, in order to meet the broadest ambitions of improving the lot of the planet's poorest, safeguarding nature and making the global economy more sustainable?

It's a question that one academic grouping, the Earth System Governance Project, has spent a decade researching.

The group has published many research papers along the way, and some are pretty specialised. But this week they lay out the top-level conclusion in a short article in the journal Science.

It is that in order to "change course and steer away from critical tipping points... that might lead to rapid and irreversible change", something radical is needed.

"This requires fundamental reorientation and restructuring of national and international institutions toward more effective Earth system governance and planetary stewardship," they write.

Theirs is a seven-point plan:

*reform the UN's environmental agencies and programmes
*morph the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) into something more representative and influential
*deploy innovative technologies such as synthetic biology and geo-engineering, with rules and safeguards
*reflect sustainability concerns in economic and trade institutions
*introduce qualified majority voting when making international decisions on environment and sustainability
*strengthen the voices of citizens as opposed to bureaucrats in global decision-making
*support developing countries more to ensure fairness.

Some of these are already being addressed in the Rio process, especially the first two; although their CSD proposal contains the innovative element of adjusting the weight given to each country's representation so that the G20 grouping accounts for 50% of the votes.

This might appear undemocratic; but actually it would ensure the voting reflects the size of countries' populations more accurately than it does now, though also skewing things towards the rich.

The most radical idea in procedural terms is introducing majority voting in UN fora to prevent a few recalcitrant nations from blocking the will of the vast majority.

There have been many times in the past when just one or two countries held up progress in UN processes such as the climate change convention - and the same issue is now being raised within the EU, where last week Poland on its own managed to block the setting of tougher carbon emission targets.

On the other hand, some countries' protests clearly matter more than others.

Whereas the 2007 UN climate summit in Bali hinged on whether the US would block the will of every other country on the planet - it eventually chose not to - the objections of Bolivia at the equivalent meeting in 2010 were basically ignored by everyone else, who decided in that case that a consensus could leave one nation out.

One suspects this particular reform would be tough to push through; and it isn't the only one.

As so often in environmental and sustainability circles, the plan contains no shortage of ideas on what should be done, and why, and by when.

The politics of how to make it all happen are a different matter.

In this case, how to get economic bodies to put Rio+20 notions at the centre of their decision-making, how to persuade governments to give up their right of veto, how to project the concerns of citizens through the blockage of bureaucracy - these aren't in the prescription.

And that "how?" issue is the toughest part of making a real transition.

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Best of our wild blogs: 16 Mar 12

She sucks and swallows
from The annotated budak

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Rising Ocean Temperatures Harm Protected Coral Reefs

ScienceDaily 15 Mar 12;

Special conservation zones known as marine protected areas provide many direct benefits to fisheries and coral reefs. However, such zones appear to offer limited help to corals in their battle against global warming, according to a new study.

To protect coral reefs from climate change, marine protected areas need to be complemented with policies that can meaningfully reduce greenhouse gas emissions, researchers said.

The new study, published online recently in the journal Global Change Biology, was conducted by scientists from Conservation International, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

To determine whether coral deaths caused by ocean warming were lower inside marine protected areas, researchers combined more than 8,000 coral reef surveys performed by divers with satellite measurements of ocean surface temperatures.

"Although marine protected areas could help coral populations recover from temperature-induced mortality in particular situations, this does not appear to be an effective general solution," said study author John Bruno, Ph.D., associate professor of biology in the UNC College of Arts and Sciences.

Elizabeth Selig, Ph.D., conservation scientist with Conservation International and the study's lead author, said corals living in marine protected areas can be just as susceptible to ocean warming as their unprotected neighbors.

"Marine protected areas (MPAs) can protect coral reefs from localized problems, particularly overfishing and terrestrial run-off," said Selig, who led the study as part of her dissertation in Bruno's lab at UNC. "However, the magnitude of losses from increased ocean temperatures as a result of climate change seems to be overwhelming these positive effects. This paper suggests that we need to rethink our current planning for MPAs in order to maximize the benefits they can provide."

Globally, corals reefs are being degraded by a number of factors including overfishing, sedimentation and rising ocean temperatures due to greenhouse gas emissions, Selig said.

A rise of just 1 degree to 2 degrees Fahrenheit (about 0.5 degrees to 1 degree Centigrade) above normal summertime highs can kill coral polyps, which build reefs.

Given the difficulty of slowing or reversing the rate of greenhouse gas emissions, coral reef scientists, managers and conservationists had pinned their hopes on a different, more localized strategy: saving corals by restricting fishing in marine protected areas. The reasoning is that fishing depletes herbivorous fishes, which can lead to more seaweed on the seafloor; that can harm baby corals, so restricting the taking of fish that trim back seaweed should help coral populations recover.

Previous research has shown that under optimal conditions, reefs in marine protected areas saw increases in coral cover of 1 percent or 2 percent per year.

But those gains might not be enough to mitigate the impact of thermal stress events. For example, the new study found that when water temperatures were more than 1 degree Centigrade above summertime averages for eight weeks (recognized as the threshold that generally results in widespread bleaching and significant coral death), it correlated with coral cover loss of 3.9 percent annually.

"Reducing overfishing, although clearly a very good thing, will not meaningfully limit the damage being done to the world's coral reefs by greenhouse gas emissions," Bruno added.

Richard B. Aronson, Ph.D., professor and head of the biological sciences department at the Florida Institute of Technology, said the study clearly showed that marine protected areas cannot by themselves save coral reefs.

"We have to reverse climate change by stopping runaway greenhouse gas emissions," said Aronson, who did not participate in the study. "That is a lot harder than protecting a reef against local problems like fishing pressure, because it requires international cooperation. But it can be done -- and it must be done if we are going to save the coral reefs and the rest of the planet."

Along with Selig and Bruno, the other author of the study was Kenneth S. Casey, Ph.D., a satellite oceanographer and technical director of NOAA's National Oceanographic Data Center.

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Plans to ban fishing discards threatened by EU member states

A group of European Union member states are planning to thwart key reforms aimed at conserving dwindling fish stocks
Fiona Harvey guardian.co.uk 15 Mar 12;

Efforts to ban the practice of discarding edible fish at sea could be thwarted by a group of EU member states which are planning to block reforms aimed at conserving dwindling fish stocks.

Campaigners, including the chef Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall, have been calling for a ban on discards – where as many as two-thirds of healthy fish caught by fleets are thrown back into the sea, dead, because they are less valuable than the species fishermen are trying to catch – for more than a year. In his series, Hugh's Fish Fight, he said half of all fish caught in the North Sea are thrown back. He called moves to block the proposed ban "worrying in the extreme".

The EU fisheries chief, Maria Damanaki, had backed a change to the European common fisheries policy (CFP) to ban discards. Her reforms would mean fishermen would be forced to land all fish they catch, in return for compensation.

But on Monday, some member states led by France and Spain will hijack a council meeting of the EU's fisheries ministers, the Guardian has learned. They will attempt to pass a "declaration" allowing discards to continue indefinitely – dismissing the ban as "unrealistic" and "too prescriptive".

Some fishermen – mainly in companies with industrial-scale vessels – want to keep the present arrangement because by throwing back lower value, though edible, fish they can maximise their profits.

If the declaration is passed, experts warned, the hopes of banning discards would effectively be over."This will kill the reform," one Brussels insider said. "It would be the end. Monday is make or break time for the policy." "This declaration looks like a vote for maintaining the status quo, or at best tinkering at the edges, and allowing hundreds of thousands of tonnes of perfectly edible fish to continue to be wasted in European waters," said Fearnley-Whittingstall. "If it succeeds I fear we can expect negligible progress on discards for many years ahead."

The declaration's signatories "restate their commitment to an ambitious reform of the common fisheries policy, [and] reiterate their view that the wasteful practice of discarding fish, that is tolerated and in some cases even promoted by the current management system, constitutes a considerable obstacle on the road to a sustainable fisheries policy".

But it adds: "[We] consider a discard ban as proposed in the draft basic regulation of the future common fisheries policy … is unrealistic and too prescriptive, and a pragmatic approach is needed especially in the context of mixed fisheries, particularly in the Mediterranean [and] support instead the inclusion of a significant reduction of discards … on a fisheries-based approach."

These caveats would effectively mean fishermen could continue to discard edible fish at sea indefinitely.

"This will kill the reform," one Brussels insider said. "It would be the end. Monday is make or break time for the policy."

Discarding results in as much as two-thirds of the fish caught being thrown back in the water, with about 1m tonnes estimated to be thrown back each year in the North Sea alone. Discarding is a consequence of the strict quotas in the EU under the common fisheries policy on the amount of fish that boats may land. When fishermen exceed their quota, or catch species of fish for which they do not have a quota, they must discard the excess.

Ruth Davis, chief policy adviser for Greenpeace UK, said: "This declaration shows that fishing ministers in some European countries will stop at nothing to slow down reform of the CFP. In doing so, they're defending the interests of a minority of extremely powerful, greedy, industrial-scale fishing companies at the expense of many thousands of sustainable and small-scale fishers."

The member states currently signed up to the declaration are led by France and Spain – the two countries "that make the music" on fisheries policy, according to one fisheries expert, as the positions those two adopt are usually followed by newer member states. They are joined by Portugal and Belgium, but other countries are wavering. Italy and Cyprus may sign up, as may the Irish. Heavy lobbying is going on behind the scenes, and will continue until the meeting on Monday.

Germany is undecided on its stance, but Richard Benyon, the UK fisheries minister, said: "We do not support this declaration and will pressing the EU hard to end the wasteful practice of discarding fish."

But many fishermen, particularly companies with large-scale industrial fishing vessels, would like to retain the practice, because it enables them to throw away lower value fish and keep the most valuable in order to maximise their profits.

Spain's stance was prefigured in a secret document revealed by the Guardian this year, which showed that the previous Spanish government was planning to scupper the proposed ban. The incoming government said at the time its position had not been decided, but it is now evident that Spain – which has the EU's biggest fleet and receives more of the EU's fishing subsidies than any other member state – is orchestrating opposition to the ban.

"Ending this horrendous waste has to be the number one priority of a reformed CFP, and I'm going to do all I can to keep it on the top of everyone's agenda," said Fearnley-Whittingstall, "Over three quarters of a million people have already signed the Fish Fight petition calling for an end to discards ... Now its time for the politicians and decision makers to make it happen."

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How Rio+20 can herald a constitutional moment

The conference should focus on assessing the governance reforms required to put the planet on a more sustainable path
Frank Biermann and Steven Bernstein guardian.co.uk 15 Mar 12;

Governments have a historic opportunity this June to create the institutions needed to fulfill the promise made at the 1992 Earth Summit. The Rio+20 UN conference on sustainable development should mark nothing less than a constitutional moment, putting the planet on a more sustainable path. But, it is in grave danger of being stillborn, lacking the political will to commit to the transformations required to collectively thrive within planetary boundaries.

The need for action hardly needs rehearsing. To put it bluntly, humanity is demanding more of the Earth than it can supply, sending us toward tipping points beyond which the planet's air, water and other natural systems can't recover.

The current structures can't cope with this new reality, as was underscored by the disappointing outcome of the recent climate change negotiations in Durban, South Africa. Despite the more than 900 environmental treaties in the past 40 years, human-induced environmental degradation continues, reaching levels that prompted the International Council for Science (ICSU) to warn last year that we have "reached a point in history at which a prerequisite for development – the continued functioning of the Earth system as we know it – is at risk."

While the science could not be clearer, far less systematic attention is devoted to assessing the governance reforms required.

How to create a "constitutional moment" will be a focus of the ICSU-sponsored Planet Under Pressure conference in London later this month. There, some 3,000 experts on global change and sustainability will provide a state of the planet assessment, discuss concepts for planetary stewardship and societal and economic transformation, and prescribe a route to global sustainability.

As our input into that process, we, together with 30 other leading scholars from around the world, undertook the first independent assessment of the state of environmental and sustainable development governance, with our summary findings appearing in the journal Science today. Our overarching conclusion: tinkering won't be enough. The situation requires a fundamental transformation of existing practices..

First, the largely ineffective and politically paralysed UN Commission on Sustainable Development should be replaced by a high-level council under the UN general assembly, to better handle emerging issues such as water, climate, energy and food security, natural disasters and the linkages among them, and to fully integrate environmental, economic and social sustainability goals. To be effective, the world's largest economies – the G20 - should hold 50% of the votes, with the rest distributed among smaller states.

Second, environmental and social goals must be mainstreamed into the activities of all global economic institutions. This avoids the current situation where their activities undermine gains achieved by environmental treaties because of poor policy coherence. This will require meaningful high-level dialogue among economic development and environmental institutions and the same government ministers – especially of finance or treasuries – to attend such dialogues to ensure consistent national engagement at the highest levels. The UN Sustainable Development Council that we propose could host such dialogues.

Third, the Nairobi-based UN Environment Programme should be elevated to a fully fledged international organisation with a status similar to the World Health Organisation – a step that would give it greater authority, more secure funding and facilitate the creation and enforcement of international regulations and standards. Such a change should not be simply symbolic, but include mobilisation of resources to properly monitor the state of the planet including socioeconomic indicators.

While our proposals focus first on intergovernmental institutions, they aim to facilitate necessary transformations at the national level, where decisions must be made on how best to respond to local needs.

Similarly, reforms must send more consistent signals and incentives to the private sector to engage and invest in the necessary transformation to a green economy. For example, governments must close regulatory gaps at the global level, including in the development and deployment of emerging technologies such as nanotechnology, synthetic biology, and geoengineering.

Finally, the environment crisis is part of a wider set of issues; including poverty, financial and political instability, and uneven economic development. This interconnectedness increases our collective vulnerability. It makes effective earth system governance even more imperative.

• Frank Biermann is chair of the Earth System Governance Project and professor of political science at the VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

• Steven Bernstein is professor of political science and director, master of global affairs programme at the Munk School, University of Toronto, Canada.

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Best of our wild blogs: 15 Mar 12

Checking up Chek Jawa with Dr Dan
from wild shores of singapore

The Cross Breed…?
from My Itchy Fingers

Two sunda pygmy woodpeckers outside of our HDB flat 组屋区活动的褐頭斑啄木鳥
from PurpleMangrove

More photos of the First Marine Biodiversity Expedition
from Mega Marine Survey of Singapore

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Mixed reactions over illegal land use in Clementi

Lim Wee Leng, Karen Ng Channel NewsAsia 14 Mar 12;

SINGAPORE: There has been mixed reactions from residents to the illegal use of land at Clementi Avenue 4.

Some in the area said they are concerned about their health due to smoke from burning vegetation while others said they like the kampong feel.

The Singapore Land Authority (SLA) said the area was previously under Malaysia's KTM Berhad but it has since reverted to the State when the Singapore-Malaysia land swap deal was concluded.

SLA said it issues about 100 encroachment notices a year.

These range from unauthorised outdoor refreshment areas, illegal cultivation and unauthorised shrines, among others.

Other encroachments included illegal dumping and parts of building structures extending into State land such as boundary wall and chain link fence.

- CNA/fa

Only 3 'farmers' have come forward
Joy Fang my paper AsiaOne 14 Mar 12;

SINGAPORE - A plot of land in Clementi Avenue 4 is home to lush vegetation bearing melons, bittergourd and jackfruit.

One can also find ponds and makeshift bridges fashioned out of wooden planks going over them.

They are all the blood, sweat and tears of Clementi resident Siow Siew Eng, 72. The retiree took over the management of the "farm" from her godfather three years ago.

Her godfather, 87, built up the area and had maintained it for the past three decades, alongside other similar ones. But there is now a hitch.

Madam Siow's "farm" - part of a larger 1,800 sq m plot of land bound by the Sungei Ulu Pandan canal, Clementi Avenue 4 and Clementi Avenue 6 - belongs to the Government.

The Singapore Land Authority (SLA) posted notices on the illegal structures last Tuesday, calling for those responsible for the encroachments to come forward by next Tuesday.

If they fail to do so, the encroachments, especially those that affect public health and safety, will be removed.

Yesterday, Holland-Bukit Timah GRC MP Sim Ann accompanied reporters on a tour of the site.

She said that a Clementi Avenue 4 resident complained about burning leaves in the area a few weeks ago.

Stagnant ponds there also serve as potential mosquito breeding grounds, noted Ms Sim. Concerned, she decided to write in to SLA.

Only three families who illegally farm there have come forward to identify themselves, but Ms Sim hopes more will do so.

Otherwise, it will be tough to have their views represented during consultations with SLA and the National Environment Agency, she said.

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Hide your food and don't feed the monkeys

Straits Times Forum 15 Mar 12;

THE Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority (AVA) and National Parks Board are working together to place traps at the fringe of MacRitchie Reservoir Park to capture monkeys, which have been behaving aggressively towards the public and snatching food and plastic bags from them ('Monkeys grab wife's groceries' by Mr Fong Wei Kurk; March 2). We will continue to closely monitor the situation at MacRitchie.

Irresponsible feeding by some members of the public has altered the behaviour of some monkeys. They are drawn out of the forest in search of food handouts from people, and may grab plastic bags or any other food containers that they have been conditioned to recognise.

We advise the public not to feed the monkeys.

In areas where monkeys are often seen, the public should ensure that the food they are carrying is kept out of sight and inaccessible to the monkeys.

Once there are no available food sources from humans, the monkeys will return to the forest for food.

Those who wish to provide feedback on the monkey nuisance may contact the AVA on 1800-476-1600 or ava_cawc@ava.gov.sg

Dr Wong Hon Mun
Director, Agri Establishment Regulation
For Chief Executive Officer
Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority

Kartini Omar (Ms)
General Manager (Parks)
National Parks Board

Monkeys grab wife's groceries
Straits Times Forum 2 Mar 12;

MY WIFE was attacked by monkeys on Wednesday while she was crossing the overhead bridge from MacRitchie Reservoir to reach home.

One crept up behind her and ripped apart the plastic bag of groceries she was carrying which emboldened the rest to seek out her handbag and try to pry more items off her.

She almost fell when she tried to escape. My wife is six months pregnant, so imagine the consequences had she been seriously hurt.

This was not the first time she was hounded by such brazen monkeys who have made food forays into our estate.

I urge the Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority and the National Parks Board to take urgent action to cull the population of monkeys in Singapore as they no longer seem to fear people, and have become a nuisance.

I have seen monkeys use the overhead bridges to cross over an otherwise busy Lornie Road to get to housing estates opposite MacRitchie Reservoir, presumably in search of food.

Fong Wei Kurk

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Malaysia: Wildlife trafficking drops 80%

Joseph Sipalan The Star 15 Mar 12;

PUTRAJAYA: Wildlife trafficking cases have dropped by over 80% since the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 came into force.

Wildlife Department figures showed that just 464 cases were recorded last year, compared to an average of 3,500 cases a year between 2007-2010.

Natural Resources and Environment Minister Datuk Seri Douglas Uggah Embas said this was a positive development in the fight to save the country's natural environment.

"I'm very happy to note that the Act has had an effect. We've learned from the previous Act, that one main ingredient is deterrent (penalties).

"Wildlife trade is not an option. It is illegal and destroys our bio-diversity, and be assured that you will be caught," he said after launching the Where's My Mama 2.0 campaign here Thursday.

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Malaysia: Enraptured by raptors

New Straits Times 15 Mar 12;

Hundreds of bird-watchers converged on Port Dickson during Raptor Watch Week. Low Mei May joined in to scan the skies

THERE was almost a no-show by raptors at the launch of Raptor Watch in Tanjung Tuan, Port Dickson last Saturday. But of the dozen or so spotted, one gave an aerial performance that visitors will not forget.

The white-bellied sea eagle circled over Ilham Resort with a metre-long fish in its talons.

Raptors need thermals to soar hundreds and even thousands of metres up in the sky and glide across the Straits Of Malacca to Tanjung Tuan, Port Dickson, where the birds congregate yearly before continuing their journey to north Asia.

On Saturday, the thermals were missing and so were the big birds of prey.

“But there’s no need to worry,” said Malaysian Nature Society president Professor Dr Maketab Mohamed. “This just means there are thousands of raptors in Pulau Rupat, Indonesia, waiting to soar over here.”

One year, Maketab said, more than 10,000 birds soared over the straits to Tanjung Tuan in a single day. “I don’t know how they counted,” he said in awe of the MNS members who have been counting the raptors for the last 13 years.
And he was proven right. Sunday was much hotter, with very few clouds. By noon, more than 2,000 birds were spotted. By evening, 5,300 birds were counted soaring on thermals to reach our skies.

Raptor Watch is a huge event in Port Dickson, drawing tourists from all over the country, and even from abroad. The birds fly here not over one weekend but over a period of about four months, from late January.
The migratory raptors flee the winter in Siberia, China, Korea and Japan towards the end of the year before returning in spring. Raptor Watch Week is also one of Malaysia’s premier eco-tourism events.
Although there was a near no-show by the raptors on Saturday, Raptor Watch week was by no means a washout.

Playing host for the 13th consecutive time, the MNS had lined up many nature-related activities, including talks, to promote eco-tourism. These included Nature Walk, Seashore Walk and Mangrove Walk.
Since February, more than 23,000 raptors had been spotted by counters stationed at the Tanjung Tuan lighthouse. The counters will continue their labour of love until April 1, for a total of 42 days. Last year, 58,000 raptors were spotted over 43 days flying over Port Dickson.

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Indonesia: Rare Sumatran Tiger Sees Surge In Brutal Conflict With Humans

Jakarta Globe 14 Mar 12;

Bengkulu City. The year is off to a bad start for Sumatran tigers, as conservation officials in Bengkulu province are reporting almost as much conflict in just a few months as from all of last year.

“So far in 2012, we have handled two tiger deaths and six tiger-human conflicts,” Amon Zamora, the head of the province’s Natural Resources Conservation Center, said on Tuesday.

Last year in all of Sumatra, two endangered Sumatran tigers were found trapped and four were known to have died from injuries inflicted by human actions.

Bengkulu’s first tiger death this year was of a male, named Rajo by conservation staff, who had been rescued from a snare trap in the Bukit Daun protected forest in Lebong district.

When conservation staff found Rajo on Jan. 8, it seemed he had been left for dead by an unknown attacker who had beaten him with a blunt instrument.

“It looked like they had deliberately tried to kill him,” Amon said. “We found him alive but covered in injuries.”

Despite medical care, Rajo eventually succumbed to his wounds.

The second tiger to die was discovered in Seluma district in February, dismembered and buried in an apparent attempt to hide the crime.

“We do not know the cause of death, but when our team dug the tiger out, we found it in pieces, with bones missing,” Amon said, adding that the forest police were still investigating the killing.

Dara, another female tiger so named after she was discovered snared in a North Bengkulu logging concession in February, will never return to the wild after her rescuers were forced to amputate her ensnared front leg, which was badly gangrenous.

In the most recent conflict, residents of Alas Bangun village in North Bengkulu district have reported unrest because of a tiger that has appeared in the vicinity of their village several times over the past few days.

Amon said his staff members were on their way to help.

“We’ll try to chase it into the forest, but if that proves impossible then we’ll be forced to conduct an ‘evacuation,’ ”he said, referring to an evacuation of the tiger, not the villagers, highlighting the cause of the problem.

Amon said the increasing frequency of such encounters points to a bleak future for the endangered species, of which only about 400 remain in the wild.

Their decline stems primarily from the constant encroachment of human development into their habitat, the conservation officer said.

Of the 400-odd tigers clinging on to their natural habitat, less than a third are thought to be living in areas set aside for conservation purposes.

The rest live in forests earmarked for timber concessions, plantations or other extractive purposes.

NGO group Forum HarimauKita, the Indonesian Tiger Conservation Forum, blames such conflicts on a lack of understanding and guidelines for tiger conservation among low-level government officials and plantation workers.

Antara, JG

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Global flower trade threatens rare palm

Mark Kinver BBC News 15 Mar 12;

Demand for leaves from an endangered palm, found in Central and South America, is threatening the species' long term survival, a study warns.

Leaves from the xate palm are used by the international flower trade, and are mostly harvested from wild trees.

UK researchers said training locals to cultivate the trees, thus easing the pressure on the wild population, only had a limited success.

The findings have been published in the journal Plos One.

"One of the reasons why florists like this leaf so much is because once you have cut it, it stays green for 30-40 days," explained co-author Sophie Williams, a researcher from Bangor University, Wales.

"There can be about two weeks from the forest to the florist, yet they can still store it for another two or three weeks."

Previous studies had said that the plant, which generally has five leaves, would be damaged if more than two leaves were removed at any one time.

The peak in demand, which is estimated to be worth $4m each year, for the leaves coincides with Mothers' Day and Palm Sunday.

Once harvested, the leaves are transported to Cancun, Mexico, before being exported to destinations including Miami and Amsterdam.

Barriers to growth

Overharvesting is a common threat facing many threatened plant species, and cultivation training is seen as one way to ease the pressure on wild populations.

In 2006, the UK Darwin Initiative Project and the Belize Botanic Garden set up a training programme, with the aim of giving locals the knowledge to grow and harvest the species rather than harvesting wild palms.

Ms Williams and the team, which included a researcher from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, used the study to assess whether the training programme had a beneficial effect.

"People will often state that we need environmental education or training, and people often see it as a panacea to protect species," she told BBC News.

"I agree that we need these things, but we also need to think about the context in which we are doing them.

"The training programme was great... but we need to look at other factors that could prevent the training from having an impact.

"Just increasing knowledge and awareness doesn't always lead to positive action all the time, and that is often because… there are barriers."

These barriers included long-term land tenure. This could act as a deterrent because it takes four years for the palm (Chamaedorea ernesti-agusti; another common name is fishtail palm) to grow before its leaves can be harvested.

If a farmer could not secure tenure of some land for long enough, then it would not be cost-effective to invest in cultivating the crop.

Access to seeds is another potential problem that could dilute the impact of a training programme.

Ms Williams said if there was not a supply of seeds for farmers, then it could encourage seeds to be taken from the wild population.

This practice, studies suggest, can be more damaging to the palms than harvesting leaves.

Ms Williams, a PhD student, said the next stage of her research is to assess whether increased cultivation is an effective conservation tool and eases the pressure on wild plants, or merely increases the supply of the economically important crop.

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